How to write a conclusion

The conclusion completes your report. Surprisingly, it’s often one of the first sections people read, especially busy people who need to make quick decisions. There is a lot to discuss for this topic, so this is just a taster.

But I already said this

Many writers feel that they have nothing left to say at this point. Everything was already written in the introduction and main body of the report. A common problem is that we put information into the introduction that doesn’t belong there. The introduction includes no material you learned from research (findings, conclusions, results).

The conclusion does this

  • Answers the question(s) from the introduction. It shows your readers why this report is meaningful and how it can be useful. It links back to the introduction without repeating what was written.
  • Consolidates all the learning points. One way is by showing what is now known that is different from what we knew in the introduction. So it is a good idea to read your introduction then your conclusion to see if they match well.

A conclusion does NOT do this

  • A conclusion does not include emotions. The goal is to be as neutral as possible. It is about the facts, not what you like/don’t like.
  • Opinions that are irrelevant or unsupported by facts are not included either.
  • No new material is included in a conclusion. The conclusion might look at the information from a different perspective, but does not add any new data or information.
  • Solutions to the problem or recommendations for changes are not included here.
  • A list that “sums up” the findings without setting them into context is not a conclusion.

Context

They key difference between a good conclusion and a lousy one is the context. What question were you trying to answer? What problem were you trying to fix? For whom? In what specific situation? Your conclusion shows how the data in your report fits these specific situations, stakeholders and resources.

In other words, it answers the questions or gaps mentioned in the introduction. By echoing the introduction, you remind your reader what the focus of the report is.

Scope versus Limitation

Research scope and limitations are required in medium and large research reports. The difference can be confusing and frustrating. Here is a brief comparison to help clear your path.

Scope is decided and discussed at the start of a project or research.

A scope is the boundaries around your research or project. A lot of the boundaries around your report / research get explained in the introduction. What is left over should be put into the scope section. What does this include?

Information that your audience/readers might reasonably expect to be in the research / report, but that you have made a conscious decision to leave out.

Some examples of what might go into a scope section:

  • Due to time or financial constraints you chosen not to …
  • Because of confidentiality and/or ethical concerns identifying information is hidden or…
  • The research will ignore specific aspects of the topic such as strategic issues, management procedures, HRM, etc and will only focus on …

Limitations are noticed/happen after the research or project. They are part of critical thinking / reflective practitioner.

Limitations are factors that might affect the reliability or validity of your research and findings.

Looking back, what might you have done differently? What weakness with data gathering or analysis might make your information less accurate? Some examples of limitations:

  • Did something happen with participants or is there a mismatch between the evaluation group and your overall target group?
  • The method you used turned out not the best choice. Maybe it missed some factors that are important after all.
  • Did something happen in the setting that affected your data gathering?
  • Did the research tools (interviews, surveys, etc) maybe unbalance the findings?
  • Did the procedures you went through affect validity or reliability?

Look for more information about both these subject in future posts.

How to Write a Summary

A summary is a unique piece of writing. It is meant to be a stand-alone document that tells the reader what a report is about. Yet it is also included with the report document.

A summary is at the beginning of a report but is always written last. Each main section of a report is represented here, so must be completed before the summary is written. It is common to copy key sentences from the report into the summary.

Traditionally, a summary is either a separate document or is part of the reports preface material (e.g. table of contents, acknowledgements, author’s note). When it is in the document then it is placed after the cover page and before other preface material.

Types of Summaries

Summaries go by so many different names. Each has a specific definition that sets it apart from other types of summaries.

Summary

A summary gives a concise overview – the highlights – to readers. When the report does not require a decision then it is simply a summary. It is designed to make an impact on the reader – to inform and influence.

Executive summary

In business some reports need a decision made by one or more executives/managers. This style of report specifically includes information for decision-making, such as recommendations, costs, risks, etc. When a manager needs to make a decision or take further action then it is an executive summary.

Abstract

The 100 to 400-word summary of academic, scientific or technical (i.e. engineering, law) papers is called an abstract. This includes keywords that future readers in their academic or professional field might be looking for.

Precis

A precis is a one-sentence summary. The name is sometimes mis-used for a summary or abstract, both of which are several sentences or paragraphs long.

Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations

In larger reports (40 pages or more), there may be another section titled Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations. It provides the reader with a short account of these two sections. A summary of conclusions and recommendations can precede the report (replace the summary or executive summary) or not. When it is a separate section then it appears early in the report (e.g. after the introduction section) and a summary or executive summary is included in the usual location.

Inform and Influence the Reader

Summaries are useful in several ways:

  • Someone can have access to the summary who may not have access to the report.
  • Busy people get the basic information without having to read the entire document. They can then make decisions, such as
    • To read the report for themselves.
    • Which employee/expert will read the report, decide what information is relevant to their organization then share that information with those who need it (e.g. managers, technical specialists).

The Essence of a Report

A summary provides the reader with a brief overview of the main points of the report. A general guideline of a summary is:

  1. First paragraph: The purpose, scope, and limitations of the report
  2. Second paragraph: Any significant findings and a very brief summary of each major section
  3. Third paragraph: Key conclusions and recommendations, if these sections are included.

A larger report may require more paragraphs, but the general structure is the same. In any case, a summary makes a concise, coherent and convincing case for the conclusion and possible recommendations. The key word is concise. As a result, it does not include extensive data.

Size of a summary

In short reports (1-4 pages single-spaced; 2000 words or less) a summary might not be included.

For reports of 10 pages or more a summary is included.

For reports that fall in the middle (4-10 pages) it depends on different variables, such as the formality of the organization, the subject, readers, etc. A good rule is to add a summary unless/until you are told it is unnecessary.

Another useful tip is to make a summary approximately 1/10 the length of the report. For a short report, it should be about ¼ of a page. For a long report it is rarely more than one full page.

Useful to know

A summary is made of short sentences, has a good rhythm and the word combination is easy to remember.

It is not presented as bullet points. Never.

It is not a numbered section within the table of contents. (I know software often thinks so, but that is because the formatting is not accurate. There is useful information on the Internet how to fix this.)

It avoids abbreviations, acronyms, titles, or jargon/lingo.

Jargon / lingo is words or phrases that are business-specific, industry-specific or profession-specific. These are unfamiliar to people from another groups who might read your report.

If you must include abbreviations or acronyms, then spell them out the first time they are used in the summary and again the first time they are used in the report. Two examples of how to do this are:

  • Acronyms: SMART (specific, measurable, agreed, realistic, time-bound). Commonly used acronyms might have more than one meaning. In the case of SMART there are over 20 words that are commonly used for this acronym. Spelling out the one you are using ensures the reader understands and uses the same perspective.
  • Abbreviations: Service Level Agreement (SLA). Write out the complete title or phrase the first time it is used followed by the abbreviation. Then in the report you can continue with just the abbreviation. This ensures there is no misunderstanding. SLA has dozens of different meanings – titles of different organizations, different actions, different products or services.

How to Write an Introduction

All forms of communication need a common ground. The introduction to a report is where you start communicating with your reader(s) and share with us what we need to know to follow your story, report, analysis and assessment. Think of it like the start of a movie when the characters, location and situation are introduced.

The Opening Scene

An introduction is the first paragraph(s) of your report. It sets the scene, providing the reader with a brief overview of the subject (or problem) and the situation around it. This puts the information into context for your reader, so the reader and you start with the same perspective. The introduction tells the motivation behind writing the report (your hypothesis), answering the 5Ws and H:

Who

Who are the stakeholders in this situation? Sometimes we need only know the general groups and their needs/wants. Other times we need to know functions/job titles or individual positions.

What

What is the situation. In a business report this might be an existing or potential problem. It could be an improvement that would improve the organization’s competitiveness in some way. Alternatively, it might be an idea or question that you want to investigate. It is the starting point of your research and why you are looking for a possible problem or improvement.

Where

The reader needs to understand the organization or the part of it relevant to this situation (a department, team, project, etc.). Different sectors, industries, organizations and even departments have different elements that will matter to the situation.

When

Are we analyzing a problem that happened so we can learn from it? Is this currently happening and we need to find a solution or manage it in some way? Are we looking to the future and trying to anticipate so we can prevent something from happening or to ensure a positive result?

Why and How

Sometimes we know (part of) the cause / contributing factors to a situation. We know the technical reason why something happened or what the triggers will be if it happens in the future. Sometimes not. If we know, then we state these. Just remember that simple whys and hows are usually symptoms to a bigger problem, not the cause (or solution) themselves.

Off-stage

The introduction not only tells your reader what you will be discussing, it tells them what you will NOT be discussing. This is the place to mention what the the boundaries are of what is being discussed. This is called the scope of the report.

Tell your reader what can and cannot be accomplished by reading this report: what is and is not included in the analysis. A good rule is to discuss anything a reader might reasonably expect to see in the report, but you have made a conscious decision to exclude. For example:

  • Time constraints: report will be on what information can be found and analyzed by the deadline
  • Financial constraints: cannot buy in expertise or pay for research reports that are not free
  • Other constraints include languages, access to people or information (other than for financial reasons), etc.

If a report is about a situation in your own work, then usually the focus should be on the changes that you personally can make in your work to improve the situation. Other times, you might not be able to make the change yourself, but will need to influence (advise, train, coach, etc.) others to make the necessary changes needed. In both cases elements outside your control or influence are NOT part of the report. If they are relevant enough that you need to explain them then do so, but also include why you are not including them further.

Non-performers

The introduction is not a repeat of the executive summary. It is also not a repeat of the information that is in the main part of the report. While you might use information from the introduction in the body of the report, rarely is a paragraph or sentence repeated. As mentioned above, the introduction also does not include elements of the problem that are outside the scope of the report. The last undesirables for a business report are emotions, blaming, slang and jargon. This is about facts, not about a desired outcome.

Stage Set

The size of an introduction varies greatly. In general, there are 4 sections. Each can be one sentence or several paragraphs. A general guideline for a business school report is as follows:

First sentence

Basic information necessary to understand the topic, the situation around it and the argument (body of the report) to come. This might include the industry/sector of the organization, the wider market the product/service competes in, etc. It can also include the perspective you have adopted (student, reporter, manager, etc.).

Second sentence

Important background on the topic and argument. Necessary background information might include defining terms, some history of the situation or informing the reader of a controversy.

Third sentence

The report thesis – what you are trying to find out, prove or look for.

Fourth sentence

The final sentence outlines the scope of the report, especially what is purposefully excluded from the report.

Opening and Closing Tune

The introduction can be written before you start writing your report or last, it depends on your preference and the complexity of the paper. A good suggestion is to rough out the introduction first, then review (and possibly revise) the focus, language and order of the introduction after you have completed your paper.

If the report has a conclusion and recommendations, these are never included in the introduction. They should be added to the (executive) summary.

The Audience’s Why and How

Another aspect to the introduction is the audience and their needs. From the audience’s perspective they need to know, “How is in this report to me?” and “Why should I read further?” The introduction must answer these questions to capture the reader’s attention and get them to read further or to take action.

Attention Getter

Like a good play or film, the introduction needs to capture your audience’s attention and develop interest in reading further. As a result, there are many aspects that are interwoven together to make the whole. The type of business report you are writing, the context of the situation, the audience you are writing for and your own writing style all play a part in how you chose to do this.

Some writers will also choose to add other information that is interesting or attention-getting.

Common additions

  • A definition or explanation of a term relevant to your paper. Sometimes common phrases are not commonly agreed upon or are being used in a specific way in your paper.
  • A general statement related to your subject.
  • A question that relates to your subject.
  • A quotation. Make sure you explain its relevance. Do not include quotations that are not explained. If it can’t be tied into the following sentences or paragraphs then do not include it.
  • A very short narrative or anecdote that relates directly to your report. Again, ensure it is clear to the reader how this brief story links to the subject or do not include it.
  • An acknowledgment of an opinion opposite to the one you plan to take.
  • An analogy. Make sure it is original, but not too far-fetched.
  • An interesting fact that relates to your argument to follow.
  • Note: Irony or paradox that is linked to your situation or subject is sometimes used, but this requires a skilled writer.

Remember to consider your audience and the context of your report in mind before including any one of these. For example, amusing anecdotes or irony are inappropriate in a financial analysis. An analogy may be lost by readers who are non-native speakers of the language you are writing in. When done badly, many of these (e.g. irony, quotation, analogy) risks offending your audience or making you look immature or unprofessional.

Tip for university students

Academic papers often instruct students to leave out non-essential information (e.g. quotations, general statements) or have tight word limits that are taken up by the basics. So use these possible additions sparingly and with the overall picture in mind.

Tutoring for (international) business students

Many business students struggle with one or more subjects. Tutoring can help, but how to choose?

First choose a tutor who is skilled in the subject you need help with and at the level you are studying. Are you undergraduate, first year? Are you studying for your master’s degree?

Then look for proof that the tutor can adapt their teaching style to your needs. Do you need time to absorb and ponder an idea before asking questions? Then email may work best for you. Do you need one-to-one discussions about the specific problems of a research project? Then personalized tutoring by someone who listens well and has a variety of background examples to use will be helpful.

Another aspect to consider is whether the tutor is familiar with they type of education you are studying. A traditional university often has a different style to a university of applied sciences or to a technical university. Some studies are more theoretical while others are more practical. A study can focus on theories more than real-life situations, or vice versa.